Science as a beleif system- a2

SCIENCE AS A BELIEF SYTEM

Protestant rationalisation that began with the Protestant reformation of the 16^th century
Sociologists argue that this has undermined religion, the way we see and think about the world.
THE IMPACT OF SCIENCEScience has had huge impact on society over past few centuries. Science and technology have revolutionalised economic productivity and raised our standard of living. This has led many people to believe that ‘faith in science’ can ‘deliver the goods’.
Science has created its own ‘manufactured risks’ that increasingly threaten the planet: pollution, global warming, drugs and internet crime.
Cognitive power- science enables to explain, predict and control the world in a way that non or pre scientific systems can not do.
These key features distinguishes from other belief systems or knowledge claims.
OPEN BELIED SYSTEM Sir Karl Popper (1959)
- science is an open belief system where every theory is open to criticism, scrutiny and testing by others
- Science is governed by principle of falsificationism
Science deliberately seek out to try and falsify existing theories
Theories can be discarded and search for a better explanation can begin
In science knowledge claims can live or die by evidence.
- Falsifying knowledge claim is what Popper says enables scientific explanation to grow
- Knowledge is cumulative builds on achievements of previous scientists to develop a greater understanding of the world around us
No theory is definitely true, can be possible to disprove science as its not sacred or the absolute truth so is opened to be questioned and perhaps to be false.
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
CUDOS NORMS Why has science grown so rapidly in the last few centuries?
Robert K Merton (1973) science can only thrive as a major social institution if it receives support from other institutions and values.
Merton:
First in England as a result of values and attitudes created by protestant reformation especially Puritanism (Calvanism)
Puritanism have ‘this worldly calling’ and industriousness and belief of study of nature led to appreciation of God’s work
Stressed social welfare and attracted to the fact that science could produce technological inventions to improve conditions of life
Science received support from economic and military institutions as the value of practical applications of science becomes obvious in areas such as mining, navigation and weaponry.
Merton like Popper sees science as an institution and an organised social activity, which needs an ‘ethos’ or set of norms and values that serve the goal of increasing scientific knowledge
Identifies 4 CUDOS:
Communism-
Universalism-
Disinterested-
Organise scepticisms-
　
CLOSED BELIEF SYSTEM Scientific knowledge is provisional, open to challenge and potentially disprovable.
Religion claims to have absolute truth, knowledge is sacred so cant be questioned, and does not change its claims.
Robis Horton- (1970)
- science as an open belief system
- Religion, magic and many other belief systems are closed
If fundamental beliefs are threatened, a closed belief system has number of devices that reinforce the system and prevent it from being disproved.
This varies e.g. witchcraft in Azande.
　
　
　
　
　
WITCHCRAFT AMONG THE AZANDEAzande do not believe in coincidence as when misfortune falls its due to in terms of witchcraft by e.g. by an jealous neighbour.
Injured party may make an accusation against the suspected witch and matter may be resolved by consulting Prince’s magic poison circle.
Prince’s diviner will administer a potion called ‘Benge’ at a chicken, whilst asking the benge whether the accused is the source of witchcraft, by telling it to kill the chicken and if it does then the sufferer can go public to tell the witchcraft to stop.
This is usually enough, as the psychic power is coming from the substance located at the witch’s intestine which is doing harm unintentionally and accused can proclaim their horror and surprise and apologise.
Evans Pritchard sees this belief system as performs social functions and it prevents grudges from festering. Since belief in witchcraft to be hereditary, kids have vested interest in keeping line clean.
This is important as social control mechanism ensuring conformity and cooperativeness.
Evans sees these beliefs as closed, as even if benge killed chicken without diviner addressing the potion, this shows that the oracle didn’t work however they believe it wasn’t a good benge.
The test does not disprove, but reinforced and claims they are the believers are trapped in their own ‘idiom of belief’, they accept it and can not change it.
SELF- SUSTAINING BELIEFSPolyani- belief system have three devices that sustain themselves in face of contradictory evidence:
Circularity
Subsidiary explanations
Denial of legitimacy to rivals
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　

SCIENCE AS A CLOSED SYSTEM

Polyani argues even science is a closed belief system .
In 1950 Immanuel Velikovsky’s theory of alternative explanation to the Earth’s origin was rejected and boycotted without even being read.
Thomas S Kuhn- argues mature science I.e. biology or physics is based on shared assumptions which he calls paradigm.
This tell them what reality is like and what will count as evidence etc.
Normal science is like ‘puzzle solving’ filling details of the paradigm’s. Those that do this successfully win Nobel prizes etc.
Scientific education and training is being socialised into faith into the paradigm and successful career depends on working with this.
Anyone who challenges the fundamental assumptions of paradigm, as Velikovsky, will usually be subjected to ridicule.
Rare period as Kuhn describes as ‘scientific revolution’ where the faith in paradigm has been undermined by accumulation of anomalies- results that paradigm can’t account for, only then do scientists become open to radically new ideas.
SOCIOLOGY OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE Interpretivists developed Kuhn’s ideas say that scientific knowledge is socially constructed- those things that scientists take to be true and real are a product of shared theories or paradigms that tell them what they should expect to see and of particular instruments they use.
Kuhin argues inventions of new instruments that help scientist make observation construct or fabricate new facts.
What scientists study in labs is highly ‘constructed’ and highly removed from real life e.g. animals are specially reared in labs.
　
LITTLE GREEN MEN Ethno methodologist Steve Woolgar (1998)- scientists are involved in trying to make sense of interpreting the world as everyone else.
When confronted with evidence from experiment they need to decide what it means, and do so by devising and applying theories or explanations. They also need to persuade others to accept their interpretation.
Woolgar notes, a scientific fact is simply a social construction or belief system that scientists are able to persuade their colleagues to share- not necessarily a real thing ’out there’.
MARXISM, FEMINISM AND POSTMODERNISM They see science as serving the dominant groups. Ruling class for Marxists and men for feminists. E.g. theoretical work on ballistics was done to develop new weapons.
Biological ideas have been used to both justify male domination and colonial expansion. Science can be seen as a form of ideology.
Postmodernists say science is a number of meta narratives that claim to posses the truth and how the world works as a means of progress to a better society. Science is just one more ‘discourse’ way of thinking that is used to dominate people.
Some postmodernist argue that science has become ‘techno science’, simply serving capitalist interest by producing commodities for profit.
　
　
　
　
　- belief system reject alternative world views by refusing them legitimacy to their basic assumption- e.g. if oracle fails, it might be due to benge being used incorrectly - each idea in system is explained in terms of another idea within a system and so onall knowledge offered is open to question and criticism committed to discovering knowledge for its sake and publish their findings to prevent fraud Scientific knowledge is judged and defined objectively not by race etcscientific knowledge must be shared

RELIGOUSITY IN SOCIAL GROUPS sociology a2

RELIGOUSITY IN SOCIAL GROUPS

Important differences between social groups in their religious participation in types of belief they hold.
Lower classes normally go to world rejecting sects and higher classes normally world accepting Churches.
Age, gender and ethnic differences in religiosity.
GENDER AND RELIGOUSITY While Priesthoods of most religions are male, more women than men participate in religious activities and belief in God, sin, evil the Devil and life after death,
Miller and Hoffman (1995)- women express greater interest in religion, have stronger personal commitment to it and attend Church more.
Bruce (1996)- almost twice as many women as men are involved in sects.
REASONS FOR GENDER DIFFERENCES
SOCIALISATION OF GENDER ROLEMiller and Hoffman, women are socialised to be more passive, obedient and caring. Men who have these qualities are more likely to be religious.
Women are more likely to work part time or full-time carers, so they have more scope for organising their time to participate in religious activities and are attracted to Church for gender identity.
Greiky (1992)- taking care of other family members increase women’s religiosity because it involves responsibility for their ‘ultimate’ welfare as well as their everyday needs.
Dave (1994)- women’s closer proximity to birth and death brings them up to ‘ultimate’ questions about the meaning of the life that religion is concerned with. Fits with differences in way men and women see God.
WOMEN AND NEW AGE
Heelas and Woodhead- 80% participants were in the holistic meilu in Kendal were women. Such movements often celebrate ‘natural’ and involve cults of healing which gives women a higher status and sense of self worth.
Experiences of child-rearing make them less aggressive and goal orientated, where women wish to feel whereas men is to achieve.
Bruce- this fit’s the expressive emphasis of the New Age.
New age emphasises of being authentic rather than acting out gender roles as women are more likely than men to perceive their ascribed gender roles as restrictive.
Callum Brown (2001)- new age religions emphasise subjective experience rather than external authority and appeals to women’s wish autonomy and attract women recruits.
On the other hand women may be attracted to fundamentalism because of the certainties of traditional gender role that is prescribed for them.
　
COMPENSATION FOR DEPRIVATIONStark and Glock(1969) + Stark and Bainbridge-
People may participate in religion because of the compensators for social, organism,ic and ethical deprivation that it offers.
Forms of deprivation are more common among women and explains their higher level of sect membership:
Organismic deprivation: Stems from physical and mental health problems
Women are more likely to suffer ill health and seek healing in religion
Ethical deprivation:Women are more likely to see the world as in morally decline and are attracted to sects that share the view as they’re more morally conservative
Social deprivation:Women are more likely to be poor and attracted to sects, since these attract poorer groups.
　
RECENT TRENDSBrierley (2005)- ‘drastic’ decline in church going among women aged 30-45 with a 16.4% fall in Sunday attendance between 1990 and 2005.
Suggests may be due to pressure of home, family and work and are very intense for these women.
Likely to have a young family and Sunday working is high (1 in 3) among these women leaving little time for the Church.
Callum Brown (2001)- Since 1960s, women have begun to reject traditional subordinate gender roles which Christianity was bound with.
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　

ETHNICITY AND RELIGOUSITY

UK today is a multi-ethnic, multi-religious society.
Although biggest religious groups are those describing themselves as Christian 72% approx.
Significant number of Muslims, Hindus and Sikhs.
Most ethnic minorities from Indian subcontinent whereas Christians are white, black African or Caribbean origin.
Policy studies found that Muslim, Hindus and Black Chrisitans are more likely to see religion as important.
Among Christians, Blacks are more likely than whites to attend Pentecoastal Churches, make up 40% of population.
Modood et al (1994)- found some decline in importance of religion for all ethnic groups and fewer were observant especially amongst 2^nd generation.
REASONS FOR ETHNIC DIFFERENCESMost ethnic minorities originate from poorer countries with traditional cultures,
Both which produce higher level of religious belief and practice.
On arrival on UK, they and their kids maintain their pattern they brought with them from their country of origin.
Disregards impact of their experiences as immigrants and minorities in a new society, and this is how religion can act as new role of cultural defence and transition.
Cultural defenceBruce (2002)- Religion in such situations offer support and sense of cultural identity in an uncertain and hostile environment.
Religion among minorities can be a basis of community, solidarity, a means of preserving one’s culture and language.
A way of coping with oppression in a racist society.
Blacks made their own Churches, as the white one’s where hostile.
Cultural transitionReligion can be a way of easing transition into a new culture and providing support and sense of community for minority groups in their new environment.
Will- high level religious participation in 1^st generation in USA due to this.
Bruce- sees the same for UK immigrants, when transition is made it loses its role and declines.
Ken (1979)- show African Caribbean community in Bristol shows both cultural defence and transition.
Pentecostalism is highly adaptive (religion of the oppressed) provided immigrants with values appropriate in new world.
Pentecostalim helped African Caribbean adopt British society, playing around the ‘protestant ethic’ by helping members succeed by encouraging self reliance and thrift.
Gave people mutual support and hope of improving their situation.
Rastafarianism, represented different response for some African Caribbean by radically rejecting the wider society as racist and exploitative.

AGE AND RELIGIOUS PARTICIAPTION

There are two exceptions to the pattern that old people attend whilst young don’t:
-Under 15s- Told and made by parents to go
- Over 65s- More likely to be sick and disabled, higher death rates makes this a smaller group
REASONS FOR AGE DIFFERENCE Voas and Crockett (2005)- 2 main sorts of explanation for age difference in religious participation:
Ageing effectOlder people turn religious.
Kendal project Heelas- people become more interested in spirituality as they get older.
As we approach death, naturally inclined to spirituality become more concerned with past deeds so turn to religion.
Generational effectFrom the view that society becomes more secular, so each generation, is less religious than one before. Older people attend Church as they grew up at a time when religion was popular.
We can therefore expect continuing age in Church goers as young are less willing to attend. English Church census found 2/5^th of Churches have no one under age of 11 attending services.
Bruce- 30% Church are over 65s, and he predicts they will become a majority.
Pentecostal Churches attract younger members though.
Gill notes kids are not been religiously socialised and so aint bothered to attend amongst 2 generations there will be a small minority As women are often associated with nature and healing role may be attracted to be more than men to New Age movements.

TYPES OF RELIGIOUS ORGANISATION sociology a2

TYPES OF RELIGIOUS ORGANISATION

CHURCH AND SECT
Ernst Treitschke (1912)- distinguished between Church and sect.
Church:- Large organisations run by a bureaucratic hierarchy of professional Priests-
Claim a monopoly of truth
- Universalistic aim to include the whole of society
- Tend to be attracted to higher classes because they are ideologically
conservative and often close linked to the state
British Sovereign is head of both the State and Church of England.
Sects
- Small, exclusive groups
- Hostile to wider society and they expect a high level of commitment
- Draw members from poor and oppressed
- Led by a charismatic leader
- Believe too they have a monopoly of truth.
DOMINATION AND CULTRichard Niebuhr (1929)
Dominations such as Methodism as lying between Churches and sects. Membership is less exclusive than a sect, doesn’t appeal as much as Church to society. Impose some minor restrictions on members but are not as demanding as sects. Unlike Church and sects they do not claim a monopoly of truth.
Cult:

- Loose- knit and usually small grouping around same shared themes and interests
- Usually without a sharply defined and exclusive belief system
- Usually led by ‘practitioners’ or ‘therapists’ who claim special knowledge
- Tolerant of other organisations and beliefs
- Do not demand strong commitment from followers more like customs/trainees
- May have little further involvement with cult once they have acquired beliefs and techniques it offers
- Most are world affirming, claiming to improve life of this world
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCESRoy Wallis (1974)
Similarities and differences between religious organisations
2 characteristics-
- How they see themselvesChurches and sects claim that their interpretation of faith is only legitimate or correct one

- How they are seen by wider society Churches and denominations seen as respectable and legitimate - sects and cults are seen as deviant

FROM CATHEDRALS TO CULTSReligious organisations some believe don’t fit today’s reality.
Bruce (1996)- Troeltch’s idea of a Church as having a religious monopoly only applies to the Catholic Church before 16^th century.
(Protestant Reformation)
It had religious monopoly over society, symbolised by massive, imposing Cathedrals
- since then sects and cults have flourished and religious diversity have become the
norm
- Churches are no longer truly Churches in Troeltsch’s sense because they have lost their monopoly and been reduced to the status of denominations competing with all the rest.
NEW RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTSSince 1960s there has been an explosion in number of new religions and organisations this has led to new attempts to classify them.
Roy Wallis (1984)- categories these New Religious Movements (NRMs)
3 groups based on relationship to outside world
-reject, accommodate or affirm
World rejectingSimilar to Troeltsch’s sects such as ‘People’s Temple’
- Religious organisations with a clear notion of God
- They are highly critical of the outside world and they expect or seek radical change
- Achieve salvation, members must make a sharp break with their formal life
- Members life community, restricted conflict with the outside world, movements controls all aspects of their lives and is often accused of brain washing them
- Often have conservative moral codes
World accommodating NRMs- Often breakaways from existing mainstream Churches or denominations such as neo- Pentecoastalists who split from Catholicism
- Neither accept nor reject
- Focus on religious matters rather than worldly seeking to restore spiritual purity of religion
- Members tend to lead conventional lives (white middle class are educated)
WORLD AFFIRMING NRMsThis differs from all other religious groups-
May lack conventional features of religion such as collective worship. Not highly organised.
Some offer their followers access to spiritual or supernatural powers. E.g. scientology, mainly cults and therapy groups.
Accept the world as it is.
They are optimistic and promise followers success in terms of mainstream goals and values such as careers and personal relationships.
- Non ~exclusive and tolerant of other relationships, claim to offer additional special knowledge or techniques to unlock their spiritual powers and achieve success to overcome problems. Been described as psychologising religion offering this worldly religion.
- Most are cults, followers are often customers rather than members, entry is through training. Movement places few demands on them and carry on normal lives.
World affirming NRMs most successful of movements. Wallis studies scientologists have 165000 members in UK compared to 12000 Moonies.
EVALUATION+ Wallis offers a useful way of classifying new religious movements that have developed in recent decades.
- Not clear whether he is categorising them according to movement’s teachings or individual member’s beliefs
- Ignores diversion of beliefs that exist within an NRM
+ Wallis- real NRMs will rarely fir into his typology such as The Healthy Happy organisation and may feature all 3 types
Stark and Bsinbridge- reject idea of constructing such typologies together. Argue that we should distinguish between religious organisation as just as using one criterion. Degree of conflict or tension between the religious group and wider society.
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　

SECTS AND CULTS

Stark and Bainbridge (S+B) - two organisations are in conflict with wider society.
Sects-
Cults-
S+B-
Sects as promising other worldly benefits such as place in heaven to those suffering economic or ethical deprivation where their values conflict with wider society.
Cults tend to offer this-worldly benefits (e.g. good health) to more prosperous individuals who are suffering psychic deprivation (normalness) and organismic deprivation (health problems). Subdivides cults according to how organised they are:
- AUDIENCE CULTSLeast organised. No formal or much commitment and limited interaction between members. Participation maybe through media (UFO cults)
- CLIENT CULTSBased on relationship between consultant and a client. Provides services to their followers. Before was medical miracles now shifted to ‘therapies’ promising personal fulfilment and self discovery e.g. spiritualism.
- CULTIC MOVEMENTS Most organised and demand a higher level of commitment. Aims to meet all member’s religious needs and rarely allowed to belong to other religious groups at the same time.
e.g. Moonies same client cults became cult movements for their most enthusiastic followers, scientology which developed out of client cults Dianetics. Cults that predict the end of the world and practice of mass suicide may be seen as cultic movements.
+ S n’ B make some useful distinctions between organisations. Their idea of using the degree of conflict with wider society to distinguish between them is similar to Troeltsch’s distinction between Church (which accepts society) and sect (rejects society).
- Some of the examples they use do not fit nearly into any one of their categories
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　

EXPLAINING GROWTH OF

RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS

Since 1960s there has been a rapid growth in the number of sects and cults. Sociologists explain these trends in marginality, relative deprivation and social change.
Max Weber (1922)-
Sects offers theodicy of disprivilige - religious explanation and justification for their suffering and disadvantage.
Milinerian movements and sects have recruited in history from the marginalised poor. In 20^th century the Nation of Islam (Black Muslim) recruited successfully among disadvantaged Blacks in USA.
Since 1960s sect like rejecting Moonies have recruited more from well- educated white middle class peeps.
Wallis- these peeps were still classed as marginal, as they were hippies, drop outs etc.
RELATIVE DEPRIVATIONRefers to subjective sense of being deprived, could be privileged like middle class who are well off but may feel spiritually deprived- lack in moral value, emotional warmth or authenticity. Wallis- so they turn to sects for a sense of communities.
S+B- Relatively deprived join sects and break away from Church members break to safeguard original message when middle class try to compromise belief in order to fit into society.
- World rejecting sects offer to the deprived compensators that they need for the rewards that they are denied in this world.
- Privileged are attracted to world accepting Churched that express that statistics and bring them further success in achieving earthly rewards.
SOCIAL CHANGE Wilson (1960- periods of rapid change disrupt and undermine established norms and values producing anomie or normalness.
Those most disrupted turn to sects for solution in the insecurity.
In 18^th century industrialisation- Methodism arose and offered a sense of community warmth and fellowship, clear norms and values and promise of salvation.
Succeeded in recruiting large numbers of industrial working classs.
Bruce (1995:6)- In a secularised societies- traditional Churches are too strict and require too much commitment compared to sects which require less sacrifices.
　
　
THE GROWTH OF NRMs
World rejecting NRMsWallis- changes from 1960s impacting young peeps in counter culture in extended education time and freedom from adult responsibilities.
Radical political movements offered alternative ideas about the future.
World rejecting NRMs ajuy6w7eejeurfyffuyffrf7ru7rpiuedbczq10t/u/////7 88ttracted young peeps as they offered an idealistic way of life.
Bruce (1995)- Failure of counter culture to change the world turned disillusionalised youth turning to religion instead.
WORLD AFFIRMING NRMsBruce- growth is a response to a modernity.
Work no longer provides meaning or a source of identity- unlike Protestant ethic gave work religious meaning for some people. Today we are expected to achieve with out much opportunities to succeed.
World affirming NRMs provide a sense of identity and techniques to promise a sense of identity and techniques to promise success in this world.
Wallis- movements of the middle ground such as Jesus Freaks has grown since 1970s. Attracted disullionalised former members of world rejecting NRMs because they provide a halfway house to more conventional style.
THE DYNAMICS OF SECTS AND NRMsSociologists interested in understanding dynamics of sect development as in history they are short lived. Interest in how the NRMs will face in longer term.
Denomination or death Niebuhr (1929)- schism (splitting from an established Church because of a disagreement over religious doctrine. That is how world rejecting NRMs come about.
Niebuhr argues sects are short lived or die or compromise with the world, abandon their extreme ideas and become a denomination.
Due to:
- The second generation
Born into a sect, lack commitment and fervour of their parents who had joined and rejected the world voluntarily
- The ‘Protestant ethic effect’
Sects that practice asceticism (hardwork and saving) tend to become
Prosperous and upwardly mobile, as with case with methodist (19^th century).
Members tempted to compromise with the world, so they will leave it or abandon world- rejecting beliefs.
- Death of a leader
Sects with a charismatic leader either collapse when they’re dead and former
Bueratic leadership takes over transforming into a domination.
　
　
　
　
SECTARIAN STYLES+B (1985)- Religious organisation making through a cycle~
1^st stage- Schism: tension between needs of deprived and privileged member of Church
- Deprived members break and join a fond world-rejecting sect
2^nd stage- Initial fervour: with charismatic leader with great difference in sect’s belief and those of wider society
3^rd stage- Denominationalism: the ‘protestant ethic’ effect and coolness of 2^nd generation mean fervour disappears

4^th stage- Further schism: more zealous or less privileged members break away to find a new sect true to original message
ESTABLISHED SECTSWilson (1966)- not all sects follow the patterns. Depends how sects answer the question ‘what shall we do we to be saved?’
Conversionist
Adventist-
Wilson- Some sects have survived after many generations, such as Amish and Adventists as they have become denominations established sects. Many of them have succeeded in socialising their kids with high level of commitment, largely by keeping them apart from wider society.
Wilson argues globalisation will make it narrow to keep themselves. Globalisation will make it easier to recruit from Third World, where large numbers of deprived people for whom the message sects are attracted, such as Pentecostalism.
GROWTH OF THE NEW AGE Covers a range of beliefs and activities that have been widespread since 1980s.
Heelas- 146,000 practitioners in UK and 2000 activities approx.
Very loosely organised audience and client cults.
Extremely diverse and eclectic (unconnected ideas in new combinations) such as beliefs in UFOs and meditation.
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
Two common themes characterised New Age:
- Self spirituality
Look inside themselves to find it instead of traditional external Churches
- Detradionalisation
Reject spiritual authority of traditional sources such as Priests and sacred texts
Values personal experience and believe we can only discover truth got ourselves within ourselves
Have world-affirming aspects that help in after world as well as world rejecting elements to achieve enlightenment in inner world.
Heelas- most New age beliefs and organisations after birth.
　
POSTMODERNITY AND THE NEW AGE John Drane (99)- appeal is a part of a shift towards postmodern society is a loss of faith in meta narratives or claim to have the truth. Science promised a better world but instead gave us war, genocide, environment destruction and global warming.
Peeps lost faith in item and disullionalised with Church’s failure to meet spiritual needs, turning to New Age idea that we can find the truth for ourselves by looking within.
NEW AGE AND MODERNITY Bruce (1995)- growth of the New Age is a feature of the latest phase of modern society and not postmodernity.
Modern society values individualism- key principle in New age beliefs. Those among in the ‘expressive professions’ concerned with human potential such as social workers or artists- New age appeals most.
New age beliefs- softer versions of more demanding strict Eastern religion such as Buddhism have been ‘watered down’ to make them palatable to self centred Westerned society.
Few demands on their followers. New Age eclectismn to Bruce ‘pick and mix spiritual shopping’ as typical of religion in late modern society, reflecting consumerist ethos of capitalist society.
Heelas (1966)- New Age and modernity linked in four ways:
- A source of identity~ in modern society, individual has different roles recruiting in fragmented identity. New age beliefs after a source of ‘authentic identity’
-Consumer culture~ creates dissatisfaction because it does not fulfil perfection that it promises. New age offers an alternative way to achieve perfection
-Rapid social change~ modern society disrupts established norms and values resisting in anomie. New age provides a sense of certainty and truth
-Decline of organised religion~ modernity leads to secularisation, thereby removing traditional alternatives to New age beliefs. In USA, new age in strongest where Church going is at is lowest in California. Like Seventh Day Adventist~ Jehova’s witnesses await 2^nd coming of Christ, to be saved must hold themselves separate from the corrupt world around them. This separationism prevents them from compromising and becoming a denomination. - sects like evangelicals aim to convert large numbers likely to grow rapidly into larger, more formal denomination Sects tend to arise in groups who are marginal to society. Groups tend to feel they are disprivileged- as in not receiving their just economic rewards or social change. As in not receiving their just economic rewards or social change. New religions .I.e. scientology new to a particular society that has been imported. result from schisms. Splits in existing organisations that break away from Churches because of disagreements in doctrines. - Highly individualistic and less organised:

POSTMODERNITY AND RELIGION sociology a2

POSTMODERNITY AND RELIGION

Believing without belonging
Grace Davie (2007)
Argues against secularisation theory.
Religion is taking a more privatised form. Such people hold religious belief without going to Church. Traditional Religion is marched by the growth of a new religion.
No longer obligated to go to Church
Vicarious Religion A small number of professional clergy practice Religion on behalf of much larger number of people, who experience it at second hand.
People still use Church for rites of passages, rituals that mark a change in status.
Bibby’s (1993)- only 25% Canadians said they attended Church regularly
80% said they had a religious belief
People are drawn to Church at times of national tragedy - Princess Diana in 1997.
Attached to the Church as an institution for providing ritual and support.
There are multiple modernities, Britain and America are both modern societies but with different patterns of Religion.
Church attendance is high in America and low in Britain. Her view that it will continue to coexist.
- Crockett (2005)- British Social Attitude surveys (1983-2000)
Church attendance and belief in God are declining.
- Bruce- Not willing to go Church shows loss of strength in belief.
They no longer wish to belong, so involvement in Religion diminishes.Spiritual shoppingLeger (2000:2006)
Cultural amnesia (loss of collective memory)
Parents let their children decide for themselves what they want to believe and do not really pass on their beliefs anymore.
Trend towards greater social equality has undermined traditional power of Church to impose Religion on people from above.
Children are now ignorant of traditional Religion.
Individual consumerism has replaced collective tradition. People believe that they have a choice as consumers of Religion and thus became spiritual shoppers.
Religion has now become a personal spiritual journey and choose which group they want to explore:
　
　
- Pilgrims
Follow an individual path in search for self- discovery. New age spirituality by joining groups, or through individual therapy.
Demand on today on personal development.
- Converts
Join religious groups that offer a strong sense of belonging.
Recreate a sense of community in a society that has lost many of its religious traditions.
Religion no longer act as the source of collective identity they once did.
Leger- Religion does continue to have some influence on society’s values.
Values such as human rights in Religion can be a source of shared cultural identity and social solidarity even those not involved in Religion.
Leger’s view can be relocated to late modernity. Some of the trends within modern society have begun to accelerate such as decline of tradition and increasing individualism.
Lyon: ‘Jesus in Disneyland’Postmodernity society has a number of features that are changing the nature of Religion. Importance of the media and communication and growth of consumerism.
The relocation of ReligionGlobalisation to the growing interconnections if societies, led to increased movements of ideas and beliefs across national boundaries. Globalisation, increased importance of the media and communication and the growth of consumerism.
Giving us immediate access to the ideas and beliefs of previously remote Religions and regions.
Ideas become ‘disembodied’ the media lifts them out of original contexts and move them to a different place and time- ‘electronic Church and televangalism’ dissembled Religion from real local Churches and relocate them it into interior, allowing people to express their faith without physically attending Church.
Religion becomes de-institutionalised its signs and images become deinstitutionalised its signs and images become detached from their place.
Religious consumerism Consumerism- that we construct our identities through what we choose to consume.
We choose our individual needs, from a vast range available in the market place. We can pick and mix elements of different faiths to suit out tastes and make them part of our identity until something attractive comes along an example of an individualised Religion.
Lyon- Religion is not abandoned but people are making conscious choices about which elements of Religion they find useful.
Loss of faith in meta- narratives theories or world wide beliefs that claim to have absolute authorative truth. Now that people have access to a wide range of contradictory religious beliefs and ideas, it makes people sceptical that any one of them is true. Thus previously dominant religious organisations and traditions use their authority and decline. Now religious movements sprung up so now consumers can sample.
Re- enchantment of the worldLyon sees that last three or four decades a period of re- enchantment , with the growth of unconventional beliefs, practices and spirituality. Lyon points to the growing vitality of non-traditional religion in the West and its resurgence elsewhere in the world.
CriticismsResearch shows people choose to view programmes that confirm their existing beliefs -
not new converts
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Continuing vitality of Religion
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　

RELIGIOUS MARKET THEORY

(Rational choice theory)
Stark and Bainbridge (1985)
Criticises secularisation theory for being Eurocentric- only Religion is in decline in Europe and fails to explain its continuity vitality in America and elsewhere.
Puts distorted view of past and future. There was no golden age of religion, unrealistic to predict a future and paint a future of religion were everyone will be atheists.
Religious market theory
- People are naturally religious and religion meets human needs.
Religion will be constant, even though demand for particular types of religion
May vary.
- When people make choices, they weigh up the costs and benefits of different
Options available.
Religion provides compensatory supernatural rewards that humanism and communism can not. Such as immorality- concept if life after death in religion.]
　
Concept of religious decline, revival and renewal when Churches decline, they leave a gap in the market for sects and cultures to attract new followers. Secularisation ignores revival and growth of religions.
　
Church operates like companies selling goods in a market. Competition leads to improvements of the quality of religious goods on offer. Church that makes it look attractive will succeed whereas the Churches that are not responsive to members will declineAmerica VS Europe
Supply-led religion When there is religious monopoly it leads to decline. When there is no competition a Church has no incentive to provide people with what they want
Stark et al- religion thrives in USA as there is religious monopoly. Guarantees freedom of religion and separation of Church and state. Encouraged a new growth of healthy religious market where religion grows or declines due to consumer demand.
Most European countries may have been dominated by an official state Church which had religious monopoly, such as Church of England. Competition has been held back and lack of choice has led to decline.
Main factor influencing Religion (Stark et al) is supply not demand like secularisation suggests. Religious participation increases when there is ample supply of religious groups to choose from but declines when religion declines. Decline of religion is not an universal trend happening in all societies as secularisation suggest.
Stark et al’s view of religion is greatly influenced by the quality and value of Religion on offer and to the extent to which it responds to people’s needs.
Shupe et al (1988) growth of ‘televangelism’ in America shows that levels of religious participation is supply led.
When commercial funding of religious broadcast began in 1960s it opened up competition in which Evangelical Churches thrived. As a commercial enterprise, televangelism responded to consumer demand by preaching a ‘prosperity bible’.
Finke (1997)- lifting of Asian immigration in America in 1960s led to Asian faiths becoming an option that proved popular which consumers in the religious market such as transcendental meditation.
MegaChurch in US and South Korea and elsewhere- large congregations have lavish recourses and able to offer a vast range gravitates to meet diverse needs of their members. Mill (97) Hypermarkets.
Stark (90)- Japan was shintoism and other religions came. Post war Germany, religion was closely regularly declined as a result Criticisms　
+ Religious market theory is the approach adopted by most American sociologists of
Religion
+ Highlights supply side of religion and consumer choice and can be useful for
understanding the growth of new religion
- Bruce rejects view that diversity and competition increase demand for religion.
Statistics show that diversity has been accompanied by religious decline in both
America and Europe.
- Bruce argues Stark et al’s misinterpret secularisation theory. Theory does not claim
there was a past ‘Golden Age’ or everyone will be atheists. Just claims Religion is in
Decline and its not universal just applies to Europe and America.
- Norris et al- countries with near religious monopoly have higher participation such as
In Ireland. However, countries with religious pluraism such as Australia have lower
Levels of participation.
- Beckford- Religious market theory is unsociological as it assumes people are
naturally religious and fails to explain why they make the choices they do.
　
　
　
　

EXISTENTIAL SECURITY THEORY

Norris and Ingle hart (2004) reject religious market theory on the grounds that it only applies to America and fails to explain variations in religiosity between different societies.
- International studies of religion have found no evidence of the link between
Religious choice and religious participation that Stark and Bainbridge exists.
Norris and Inglehart-
Variations in religion is due to different degrees of existential security
Religion meets a need for security, and therefore societies that are secure and have a low level of demand for religion-
~ Poor societies High levels of religiosity such as famine, disease and environmental disease
~ Rich societies High levels of security and greater sense of security have lower levels of religiosity
Demand for religion is not constant, as Stark et al claim, but varies both within and between societies. Third world countries remain religious, prosperous western countries more secular.
Global population growth undermines trend towards secularisation. Western have low population growth- third world poor, insecure have high population growth.
Rich countries are becoming more secular, majority of the world is becoming more religious.
Europe VS AmericaWestern countries more secular and it is safer and more secure- reduces poverty (health care, benefits etc) and protects those at the bottom from insecurity.
America- religious due to it being the most unequal of the rich societies. Inadequate welfare- safety net and individualistic dog- eat- dog values. Creates high levels of poverty and insecurity so greater needs of religion.
America though is religious in standards of rich countries, less religious compared to poor countries.
State welfare and religiosity Gill and Lundergaurde (2004)
More country spends on welfare, lower levels of religious participation.
In past, religion used to provide welfare for the poor, and still does so in poorer countries. 20^th century- state in the West began to provide welfare and this contributed to religion’s decline.
Religion still exist as it answers ultimate as ‘life after death’ and such. Welfare reduces the need for religion but does not eliminate it completely.
Evaluation+ Vasquez (2007)- Norris and Inglehart offer valuable explanation for different levels
of religious participation in Europe and USA.
- Only quantitative data used about income levels- does not examine people’s
definition of existential security more qualitative data is needed.
- Norris et al only sees Religion as negative response to deprivation- ignore positive
reasons for religious participation and appeal to some types of religion for healthy.
　Consumerist Religion Bruce argues is a weak Religion evidence of secularisation not Church attendance not applicable - electronic Church

SECULARISATION IN BRITAIN sociology a2

SECULARISATION IN BRITAIN

1851 census of Religious worship,
Crocket (1998) 40% of adult population attended Church on Sunday.
Led some sociologists to believe that the 19^th century was a ‘golden age’ of religiosity:
- Decline in proportion of population attending Church
- An increase in age of Church goers
- Fewer baptism and Church weddings
- Greater Religious diversity
In 1966 Bryan Wilson- Western society are having long term process of secularisation ‘The process whereby Religious beliefs, practices and institutions lose social significance’
Due to the reasons above Wilson believes that Britain has become a secular society.
CHURCH ATTENDANCE TODAY63% of adult population attend Church on Sunday (2005)
Half of Wilson’s research in 1960
Expected to fall by 47% in 2015
English Church census (2006)
Attendance of large organisations such as Church of England and Catholic Church have declined.
Small organisations have either been stable or grown but it does not outweigh the decline.
- Other services .I.e. weddings, baptisms have decreased
RELIGIOUS BELIEFS TODAYReligious beliefs from over 60 years of opinion polls and attitude surveys
- More people claim Christian belief than belonging to a Church
- Religious belief is declining within line of Church attendance and membership.
Robin Gill et al (1998)- 100 natural surveys on Religious belief 1939-1996
23% in 1950 described themselves of not belonging to any Religion or domination.
43% in 1996.
RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS TODAY‘Disengagement’
State has taken over many of the functions that the Church used to perform.
Increasingly been relegates to the private sphere of the individual and family.
‘Faith schools’ are mostly state funded and therefore conform to the state’s regulation such as teaching national curriculum.
A lack of clergy on the ground in the local communities mean day to day influence of the Church is reduced.
Steve Bruce (2002) agrees with Wilson that all evidence on secularisation has been pointing on the same direction for years.
EXPLANATIONS FOR SECULARISATION- Modernisation
Decline of tradition and replacement with scientific/ rational thought
- Social change
Industrialisation leads to break up of small communities that were held
Together with common religious beliefd
- Growth of social and religious diversity
MAX WEBER: RATIONALISATIONRefers to the process by ways of thinking and acting have come to replace Religious ones.
Max Weber (1905)- Protestant reformation began by Martin Luther in the 16^th century started
process of rationalisation in the West.
- Saw Catholic worldview as their view was an ‘enchanted or magical garden’
Supernatural beliefs could change course of action and humans could change
and influence this by power of prayer etc.
DISENCHANTMENT Protestantism saw God as above and beyond and had no influence on world therefore events were by own laws of nature.
Rationality and power of reason were bought since there was no longer an ‘enchanted
Garden’.
This enables science to thrive and provide the basis for technological advances that gave humans more power to control force.
A TECHNOLOGICAL WORLD VIEWBruce- growth of technological worldview has largely replaced religious or supernatural explanations of why things happen. Scientific explanations do not challenge Religious diversity they have though reduced the scope for Religious explanations. Results in people taking Religion less seriously.
STRUCTURAL DIFFERENTATIONTalcott Parsons (1951)
Structural differentiation as a process of specialisation that occurs with the development of the industrial society. Religion has become smaller and more specialised institution. Lost functions such as Church, education, social welfare and law.
Bruce- privatised confined to home and family, as a result traditional rituals and symbols have lost meaning. Even in faith schools they must conform to requirements of a secular state.
SOCIAL AND STRUCTURAL DIVERSITY (PLURAISM)Wilson-
- Pre industrial communities shared values expressed through integrated individuals
- Industrialisation, breaks up communities through social and geographical mobility but brings people together from more different backgrounds
- Diversity allows people to know more about other Religions
- Individualism, not collective Religion practices so tend to
Aldridge-
- Religion can be worldwide (Islam)
- Imagined communities- global media
- Pentecostal religious groups flourish in impersonal urban areas.RELIGIOUS DIVERSITY Berger (1969)
Catholic Church has no competition so was unchallenged.
Protestant reformation, number of religious organisation with different versions of the truth, no Church then was left unchallenged.
Religious diversity creates a ‘plurality of life worlds’ were people’s perceptions of the world vary and there are different interpretations.
Diversity questions all of Religions and beliefs have become relative rather than absolute.
CULTURAL DEFENCE AND TRANSITIONBruce-
- Cultural defence-
Religion provides focal point of a defence of national, ethnic, of local or group identity against eternal power ‘foreign force’.
- Cultural transition-
Religion provides support and sense of community for ethnic groups such as migrants to a different culture and country.
Religion survives as it is a focus for group identity.
Church going declined after fall of communism in Poland suggesting Religion loses importance for migrants once they are integrated into society.
Berger (1999) changed views- diversity and choice actually stimulate interest and participation in Religion.
Beckford (2003)- Opposing views can have strengthening effects on a religious groups commitment of its existing beliefs rather than undermining them.A SPIRITUAL REVOLUTIONNew age beliefs and practices that emphasise personal development and subjective experience.
‘Spiritual market’ growth of spirituality as seen in rise of number of books on self help and therapies.
Heelas and Woodhead investigate whether traditional Religion has declined, if so how far is the growth of spirituality compensating for it.
Distinguishes between two groups:
- Congregational domain (traditional and evangelical Christianity)
- Holistic menu (Spirituality and New Age)

(2000)- In a typical week 7.9% attended Church
1.6% attended holistic menu
In congregational domain, traditional Church’s were losing support whereas Evangelicals were doing quite well.
Although, holistic menu were few but growing.
Heelas and Woodhead’s explanation:
1- New age spirituality has grown because of a massive turn in today’s culture.
Involves shift of the idea of just doing your duty and exploring your inner
Self by following a spiritual faith.
2- As a result traditional Religion’s are declining.
As Woodhead et al’s put it-
‘Religion that tells you what to believe and how to behave is out of tune
With a culture which believes it is up to us to seek out answers for itself’

3- Evangelical Churches are more successful as they both demand discipline and duty but emphasises the importance of spiritual healing and personal
Growth by being ’born again’
In spiritual market winners are those who appeal to personal experience as the only genuine source of meaning and fulfilment then the received teachings and commandments of traditional Religion.
Heelas and Woodhead argue spiritual revolution has not taken place. Although growth of holistic menu since 1970s it has not compensated for decline in traditional Religion. Conclude secularisation is occurring in Britain as it has undermined the basis of traditional Religion.
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
SECULARISATION IN AMERICA (1962) Wilson- 45% American’s attended Church on Sunday.
Argues it is superficial though as it only expresses American way of life.
Bruce (2002)- 3 sources of evidence America is becoming secular.
-Declining Church attendance
-Secularisation from within
-Trend towards Religious diversity and realism
DECLINING CHURCH ATTENDANCEKirk Hadaway (1993) found that 40% figure on opinion poll on Church attendance did not match Church’s own attendance statistics.
If 40% Americans did then Church’s would be full.
Hadaway- Church attendance in Ashtabula County, Ohio.
Did head count and interviewed attendees.
Found interviewees claimed attendance was 8% higher that estimates of Church attendance in the county.
In 1970- polls matched Church’s
In 1972- opinion polls exaggerated attendance by 47%
1n 1996- Exaggeration doubled up to 101%
Widening gap may be due to the fact that it is still may be seen as desirable or normative to go to Church. So people who have stopped going may say that they still attend if asked in an survey.
SECULARISATION FROM WITHINBruce- American Religion has adjusted to modern world amounts to secularisation from within.
Religion in America has turned into a form of therapy- ‘psychological’ than traditional Christian beliefs.
This has enabled it to fit with secular society, American Religion has remained popular by becoming less religious.
Purpose of Religion has changed from seeking salvation in heaven to personal improvement in this world. This can be seen in people’s attitudes and lifestyles
Young American Evangelicals
In 1951:91% social dancing is wrong 1982:0%
98% Alcohol drinking wrong 1982:17%
RELIGIOUS DIVERSITY Bruce- trend towards ‘practical relativism’ among American Christians.
Acceptance to view that other’s are entitled to hold beliefs that are different to our owns.
Lynd et al’s study- 1924 = 94% In 1997 = 41% agreed
‘Christianity is one true Religion and all people should be converted to it’
Counterpart to ‘practical relativism’ is ‘eroding absolutism’ that is we live in a society where people hold views that are different to ours which undermines our assumption that are views are absolutely true.

CRITICISMS OF SECULARISATION THEORY

　
Theory puts forward strong arguments and evidence that support their claim that Religious beliefs, practices and institutions have declined both in Britain and in America.
Religion is not declining but simply changing its form Focuses on decline and ignores Religious revivals and growth of new Religions
Church attendance statistics ignore people who believe but do not attend Church
Religion has declined in Britain but not in America, secularisation is not universal
Past was not a ‘Golden Age’ of faith to which Religion has declined and future will not be an age of atheism.
Religious diversity increases participation because it offers choice. No overall downward trend. Religious trends point in different directions and people make use of Religion in all sorts of different ways.

RELIGION AND DEVELOPMENT sociology a2

RELIGION AND DEVELOPMENT

~

Religion may contribute to development, Weber- in protestant ethic.
GOD AND GLOBALISATION IN INDIAGlobalisation has brought a rapid economic growth and India became a more important player on the world political stage. Nanda’s (2008)- ‘God and globalisation’ 85% of population legitimises both rise of Hindu ’ultra- nationalism’ and prosperity of Indian middle class.
HINDUISM AND CONUSMERISMGlobalisation created huge, prosperous scientifically educated- precisely these tried to the global economy. Secularisation theory predicts these would be the first to leave the religion.
Nanda- majority of this class continue to believe in supernatural. In a survey they found that urban educated Indians are more religious than their rural illiterate counterparts. Increased interest reflected in dramatic growth of religious tourism, such as visits to shrine and temples. Nada notes it is becoming fashionable to be religious and tends to be seen so.
Middle class religiosity- attracted to what were once low status village Gods and Goddess worshipped by poor. Seen as being more responsive to people’s needs than traditional Hindu ‘Great Gods’.
Nada argues, their increasing religiosity is the result of their ambivalence about their newfound wealth. Rejects existential security theory reject that it’s a reaction to modernisation and westernisation.
Ambivalence stems from tension between renunciation of material stuff and new prosperity of the middle class.
Modern holy men and tele-gurus, preach message that desire is not bad but a manifestation of divinity that motivates people to do things. Teach middle class consumerism can be ‘spiritually balanced’ by paying for the performance of appropriate and often extravagant rituals which also serve as a way of displaying ones wealth. Modern visions of Hinduism therefore legitimate position of the middle class and allow them to adjust to globalised consumer capitalism.
HINDU ULTRA-NATIONALISMPew Global attitude survey
- 93% of Indians more than any country agreed with statement that ’our people
Are not perfect, but our culture is superior to others’
Nada- India’s success in the global market is increasingly attributed to superiority of ’Hindu values’ a view which is constantly promoted by media and politicians.
Hinduism thus becomes a ‘civil religion’ but creates a widening gulf between Hindus and non-Hindu minorities.
Hinduism- supposedly secular state is increasingly influenced by religion. Health Ministry is University in research, development and sale of cow urine (cows being sacred animals) as a cure to every ailment from Aids to TB (Nanda, 2005).
CAPITALISM IN EAST ASIA In recent decades the so called ‘East-Asian tiger economies’ such as South Korea. Taiwan have successfully industrialised and become significant players in the global economy. Some sociologists believe religion has played a similar role to one of Calvanism in 16^th, 17^th Century which has led to capitalism in East Asia.
Redding (1990)- spirit of capitalism in Chinese entrepreneurs as their ’post- Confucianism’ values encouraging hard work, discipline, hard work, self-discipline and self improvement which is similar to Protestant ethic.
PENTECOSTALISM IN LATIN AMERICAPeter Berger (2003) this acts as the functional equivalent to Weber’s protestant ethic. Pentecostalists embrace work ethic and lifestyle that is similar to Calvanists which demands both an ascetic (self-denying) way of life that emphasises personal discipline, hard work and abstinence from alcohol. Encourages member to prosper and be upwardly mobile . Berger concludes this has similarity with modern capitalists.
Something like this is needed to promote economic development and raise out of poverty. Berger says that natural recourses are also needed, lack of recourses in Northern Brazil means its backwards even though with Pentecostal beliefs.
PENTECOSTALISM: GLOBAL AND LOCALChristianity has globalised expending out of Europe. First into south of America and Africa.
David Lehmann (2002)- differences between 2 phases of expansion.
- Christianity accompanied colonisation imposed and suppressed other religions
- Last century or so it has spread because it gained popular following by 2000
Where 80 million Pentecostalists in Brazil alone.
Lehmann- Pentecostalism can incorporate local beliefs. Uses imagery and symbolism drawn from local cultures and existing religious beliefs.
- Pentecostalists attack such cults as the work if the devil, ministers conduct exorcism
to get rid of evil spirits
- Pentecostalists accept their existence and this validates local traditional beliefs, while
At the same time claiming to give access to greater power, that of Christian Holy
spirits.
Pentecostalism creates new local religious forms, rather than eliminating existing ones. In Africa, this led to ‘Africanisation’ of Christianity than Pentecostalism has ability to adapt to local customs and establish of local identity for itself.
Been successful in developing countries, able to appear to the poor who make up the vast majority of the population. Uses global communication media to spread its message.

RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALISM

FUNDAMENTALISM AND COSMOPLITICAN Anthony Giddens (1990:91:99)
- Traditionalists seek to return to the basics or fundamentals of their faith
- Believe in the infallible and literal truth of scriptures
- Believe theirs is the only true word of God
- Intolerant to others and refuse dialogue, argue with reference to sacred texts
Rather than rational arguments
- Rely on clergy’s or elders to interpret sacred texts and lay down rules that
Determine their lifestyle.
Giddens- fundamentalism is a relatively new one.
Sees growth as a product and reaction to globalisation, which undermines traditional social norms. Rigid, dogmatic belief is certainly that it promotes in an uncertain world that demands rational reasons.
Retreat into faith- based answers and away from globalising world that demands rational reasons.
- Cosmpolitician embraces modernity and with its keeping with today’s globalising
World
- Tolerant to the views of others open to new ideas
- Reflexive thinking ‘constantly reflecting on and modifying beliefs in the light of new
information.
- People justify their views using rational arguments
- Lifestyle is one’s own personal choice
- Emphasises pursuit of personal meaning and self improvement
Giddens sees fundamentalism as the enemy of Cosmo politician thought and modernity.
Fundamentalism uses modern methods to express and spread their beliefs even though their against it.
Responses in modernityBauman (1992)- fundamentalism is a response to postmodernity.
Postmodernity society brings freedom, choice, uncertainty and heightened awareness of risk, undermining old certainties on how we are to live our lives.
Some embrace it and some attach themselves to fundamentalism by claims of absolute truth and certainty.
Manuel Castells (1998)- 2 responses to postmodernity
- Resistant identity ~ a defensive reaction of those who feel threatened and
Retreat to fundamentalist communities
- Project identity ~ response of those who are forward looking and engage with
Social movement such as feminism and environmentalism
　
　
　
CriticismsBeckford (2003)
- Distinguish too sharply between cosmopolitican and fundamentalists ignoring hybrid communities
- Ignores other important developments globalisation has on other non- fundamentalist religions such as Catholicism
- Giddens ignores differences between fundamentalists
- Giddens ignores the fact that reinventing tradition is also a modern ‘reflexive acting’.
Jeff Haynes (1998)
Not only globalisation- Islamic fundamentalists in Middle East conflicts caused by local elites in failure to keep their promise to improve standard of living.
Monotheism and fundamentalismBruce sees fundamentalism being confined to monotheistic religions.
Because monotheistic religions are based on notion that God’s will revealed through a single authoritative sacred text such as Quran.
Bible lays down specific rules for believers to follow.
Polytheistic religions have more scope for different interpretation as none has over riding for absolute truth such as Hinduism.
Two fundamentalismsFundamentalists differ as some may be triggered by change in their society and some response to changes being thrust upon society form aside.
Protestant Christian and Islamic fundamentalism
- In the West
Reaction to change taking place within society such as openness in sensitive issues
- In the Third World
Reaction to change thrust upon society. Modernisation and Western values being imposed.
Cultural defenceBruce- Religion cultural defence unite against an external force. Religion symbolises the group or societies collective identity.
20^th century Poland and Iran-
Poland- external power Soviet Union
Iran- Western culture and capitalism
Poland1945-1989
Under communist rule imposed by Soviet Union. Catholic Church suppressed and it did not always challenge communist regime openly. Served as a popular rallying point of opposition- lent its active support to the free trade union movement in 1980s helped bring down communism. Church regained a public role had significant influence on Polish politics since 1900s.
　
IranWestern capitalists powers and civil companies had long influence on Iran including illegal overthrow of democratic government in 1950s to install a pro- western regime headed by Shah of Iran.
1960s and 1970s- Successor embarked policy of modernisation and westernisation, this was widening gap between rich and poor whilst protest was suppressed.
Islam became resistance to the Shah’s regime led by clerics such as Ayatollah Khomeini. Revolution of 1979 bought Islamic republic Clerics has state power and able to impose Islamic shariah on country.
Haynes- Iranian example of typical of Middle East, as it was led by Mullahs. In places like Saudi Arabia, religious leadership is tied to local elite who are tied to Wes.ern Imperialism. Their religious leaders are opposed by local fundamentalists who saw them as enemies of Islam,

Religion as a conservative force sociology a2

RELIGION AS A CONSERVATIVE FORCE

1) Conservative in sense of being traditional and upholds these beliefs and how society
should be organised
2) Functions to conserve things as they are and stabilises society and maintains status
quo.
RELIGIONS CONSERVATIVE BELIEFSMost Religions have traditional conservative beliefs about moral issues and many of them oppose changes that would allow individuals more freedom in personal and sexual matters.
Catholic Church forbids divorce, abortion and artificial contraception.
Opposes gay marriages and homosexual behaviour.RELIGIONS CONSERVATIVE FUNCTIONSFunctions to conserve or preserve things the way they are and maintain status quo
Religion and consensus
Religion and capitalism Marxists see Religion as preventing social change.
By legitamising and disguising exploitation and inequality by creating false conciousness in working class and prevents revolution thereby maintaining stability of capitalist society.
Religion and patriarchy Feminists see Religion as a conservative force because it acts as an ideology that legitimises patriarchal power and maintains women subordination in the family and wider society.

WEBER: RELIGION AS FORCE FOR CHANGE

Weber has shown Religion as a force for change.
Max Weber (1905) ‘The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism’
Calvinism ( a form of Protestantism founded by John Calvin during Reformation)
This helped bring about a major social change.
Especially emergence of modern capitalism in Northern Europe in the 16^th and 17^th centuries.
‘Spirit of capitalism’- based on a systematic, efficient, rational pursuit of profit for its own sake, rather than for its consumption.
Unlike past societies which often spent capitalism on luxury consumption.
　

CALVINIST BELIEFS

Predestination-

‘The elect’ and which ones were not before birth destined.
Nothing could be done to change their condition.
Divine transcendence

Calvinist knew his will other than Bible.
This left ‘unprecedented inner loneliness’ combined with belief of predestination created ‘salvation panic’ in Calvinists.
They did not know if they were saved and could do nothing to earn their salvation.
Asceticism

Such as Monks who devote themselves to God and life of prayer without luxury.
The idea of a vocation or callingCalvinism introduces for the first time ’worldly asceticism’.
The only thing that Calvinists knew of God’s plan of humanity came from the Bible.



As they grew wealthier it was a sign of God’s favour and their salvation.
They did not spend on luxuries yet they kept reinvesting to gain more profit.
According to Weber, this is the very spirit of modern capitalism.

　

　

　

　

　

　

　

　

　

　

　

　

　

　

HINDUSIM AND CONFUCIANISM

Weber did not impose that Calvinism bought capitalism but was one of its causes.
A number of material, or economic factors were necessary, such as natural resources, trade, a money economy, towns and cities, a system of law and so on.
Other societies have had a higher level of economic development than Europe in 16^th and 17^th century but still failed to develop modern capitalism
Ancient China and India were more materially advanced but did not form capitalism due to lack of Religious belief system that would have spurred its development.
Hinduism was ascetic Religion, orientation though was other- worldly more spiritual
China was Confucianism and veered towards material. It was not asceticCalvinism was unique in combining asceticism with a this- worldly orientation to enable spirit of modern capitalism to emerge.

EVALUATION

Argues capitalism preceded rather than followed Calvinism.
Capitalism did not form in every Calvinist society such as Scotland
Weberians such as Marshall (82) argue it was due to lack of investment capital and skilled labour. Supporting Weber that both cultural and material factors need to be present for capitalism to occur.
Calvinists were amongst first capitalists as they had been excluded by law from political office, they then turned to business as one of the few alternatives opened to them.
Other Religious minorities were also excluded in this way but did not become successful capitalists.
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　

　

RELIGION AND SOCIAL CHANGE

Steve Bruce (2003) compares two examples of Religously inspired movements in America that have tried to change society:
The case studies of civil rights movement and the New Christian Right.
AMERICAN CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT The Black civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s to end racial segregation is an example according to Bruce of a religiously motivated social change.
Blacks were treated very poorly did not have the rights and amenities that their white counterparts had. Suffered segregation, denied voting by legal restrictions and intimidation.
Civil rights movement began in 1955 when Rosa Parks, refused to sit at the back of the bus. Campaigning involved protest marches, boycotts and demonstrations. Almost a decade later in 1964, segregation was outlawed.
Dr Martin Luther King played a decisive role, giving support and moral legitimacy to civil rights activists:- Church provided meeting places and security
- Prayer meetings and hymns were a source of unity in face of oppression
Bruce argues that the Black clergy were able to shame the whites in appealing to the shared Christian values of equality.
Their message reached a wide audience outside the Southern state and gained national support.
Bruce sees Religion as an ideological resource- it provided beliefs and practices that protestors could draw on for motivation and support.
Religious organisations are well equipped to support protests and contribute to social change through example of Civil Rights:
- Taking the moral high groundThe Black clergy pointed out the hypocrisy of the white’s ‘love thy neighbour’ but supported racial segregation.
- Channelling dissentReligion provides channels to express political dissent

- Acting as honest brokerChurches can provide context for negotiating change because they are often respected by both sides and are seen as to be above politics

- Mobilising public opinion Black Churches campaigned for support across the whole of America

Movement achieved its aims because it shared its values as wider society and those in higher power. It brought about change by shaming and brining into practice that all men and women are born equal.

THE NEW CHRISTIAN RIGHT

Politically and morally conservative. Protestant fundamentalist movement.
Gained prominence in 1960s because of the opposition of the liberalising of America.
Aim is to bring America ’back to God’ at a time before the liberalisation began
Believes strongly in traditional family and gender roles
Campaigns for the teaching of ’creationism’ (Bible’s literal view account) and to ban sex education in schools It gained effective use of media, broadcasts, fundraising and gaining converts.
The Moral Majority, a right wing Christian pressure group was focus of political campaigning and strengthening links with the republican partyNew Christian Right has been unsuccessful in achieving its aims according to Bruce-
- Only had 15% of population at most
- Difficult to work with other Religious groups
- Lacked widespread support and had opposition from groups who stand for freedom of choice.
Very few Americans support the idea of theocracy (rule by religious leaders) and therefore have failed in the movement amongst the popular values of liberal and democratic views of America.
For civil rights movement to be a success the beliefs and demands of motivated religiously protests need to be consistent with that of wider society.
In the American case, they need to connect with mainstreams beliefs about democracy, equality and religious freedom.
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　

MARXISM, RELIGION AND CHANGE

Marxism sees Religion as having a dual character and can sometimes be a force for change as well as stability.
Religious ideas can have ‘relative autonomy’ they can be partly independent of the economic base of society.
Marx sees Religion as ‘heart of a heartless world’ its ability to humanise a world made inhuman by exploitation even if its comfort is illusory.
Engels (1895)- Religion can challenge status quo and encourage social stability.
ERNST BLOCH: THE PRINCIPLE OF HOPEReligion is an expression of the ‘principle of home’ our dreams of a better life that contain images of utopia (the perfect world)
Images of paradise may create a vision for a better world with political organisation and leadership, it can bring about social change.
LIBERATION THEOlOGYMovement emerged within Catholic Church in Latin America end of 1960s.
Strong commitment to poor and opposition to military dictatorship.
For centuries, though it was extremely conservative in the fatalistic acceptance of poverty and supporting wealthy elites and military dictatorship.
Liberation theory arose:
- Deepening rural poverty and growth of urban slums in Latin America
- Human right abuses
- Growing commitment among Catholic Priests to an ideology that supports the poor and opposed violations of human rights.
Emphasis is on ‘praxis’ practical action guided by theory
Liberation theory set out to change society and Church took centre action by setting us base communities and educating poor, raising awareness and mobilising support. During 1970s, the Catholic Priests were the only authority figures that took the side of the oppressed .
In 1980s, attitudes changed as Pope John Paul II condemned liberation theory as it mimicked Marxism and instructed Priests to concentrate on pastoral activities, not political struggle and since then lost influence.
Casanova (94)- liberation theology played an important part in resisting state terror and bring about democracy in Latin America.
Although, Catholicism has become conservative in the 1970s it continues to defend democracy and human rights that were achieved in part of liberation theory.
Maduro sees liberation theory as an example of religiously inspired social change.
Some Marxists though say it depends on how social change is defined.
Liberation theology may have helped bring about democracy but did not threaten the stability of capitalism.
MILLENARIAN MOVEMENTS As Religion raises hope of afterlife, can bring about a desire to change things now on Earth.
Take name from the word ‘millennium’ meaning a thousand years.
In Christian theology refers to the idea that Christ (Peace be upon him) will come on Earth for a second time and rule for a thousand years before the Day of Judgement and the end of the world.
Peter Worsley (68)- create heaven on Earth and be collective the group will be saved not just individuals.
Appeal is largely for the poor because promised immediate improvement, often arise in colonial situations.
Millenarian movements in Melanesia (Western pacific) - ‘cargo cults’
During 19^th and 20^th centuries the cargo were meant for the natives but had been diverted for the whites themselves
Unjust social order was to be overturned, often lead to widespread unrest and threatened colonial ruleWorsley- movements combined elements of traditional beliefs with elements of Christianity.
Movements are described as pre-political as they used Religious ideas and images, but they united native populations in mass movements that spanned tribal divisions.
Engels argue that it represents first awakening of ‘proletarian self-consciousness’.
GRAMSCI: RELIGION AND HEGEMONY Hegemony- the way the ruling class are able to use ideas such as Religion to maintain control.
When this is established there is less need for coercion i.e. force
Counter hegemony- is where the working class develop an alternate vision of how society should be organised.
Popular forms of Religion can help workers see through the ruling class hegemony by offering a vision of a better world.
‘Organic intellectuals’ educators, organisers and leaders can help workers see the situation they are in and support working-class organisations such as trade unions.
　
　
　
　
　
RELIGION AND CLASS CONFLICT Billings (1990)- Kentucky in 1920s and 1930s- two communities miners whom were more militant, whilst the textile workers were quiet and just accepting the status quo.
- LeadershipMiners had support from preachers whom were once miners
Textile workers lacked this and thus were easily influenced by the clergy who denounced their union as ’unGodly’
- Organisation Miners had Church spaces where they organised meetings

Textile workers lacked these amenities
- SupportMiner’s morale was kept high with sermons, prayer meetings etc

Textile workers who engaged in union activity met with opposition from local Church leaders who branded them as communists
Billings show how Religion was an important factor in affecting the level of class struggle. He concludes that Religion can play ‘ a prominent oppositional role’, his study shows how the same Religion can either defend the status quo or justify struggle against it.
　
　Karl Kautsky (1927)- Weber over estimates the role of ideas and under estimates economic factors in bringing capitalism into being.Their wealth and success performed a psychological function as it allowed them to cope with the salvation panic Work could not earn salvation, it was a Religious duty.Thus for Calvinists is the idea of calling or vocation meant constant, methodological work in an occupation not in an monastery.Abstinence, self- discipline and self- denialGod was far above and greater than any mortal that no Church, Priest of Predetermined which souls would be saved.Functionalist see Religion as a conservative force because it functions to maintain social stability and prevent society from disintegration.
Marxists and feminists see Religion as an ideology that supports the existing social structure and acts as a mean of social control, creating stability in the interest of the powerful.
Help maintains the status quo by preventing the less powerful to change things.

Theories of religion sociology a2

Functionalist theory of Religion

Functionalists see society as a system of inter-related parts.
Society is like an organism, with basic needs that are met by different institutions which perform different functions.
Only society can survive through value consensus, without this individuals would pursue their own selfish desires and society would disintegrate.
DURKHEIM
SACRED AND PROFANESacred are things that are apart and forbidden and inspire feelings of awe, it is surrounded by taboos and prohibitions
Profane are things that are ordinary and mundane and have no special significance Durkheim believes that symbols represent greater power, which can only be society as that is the only thing powerful to evoke such feelings.
The essential function for Religion is unity into a single moral community
TOTENISMTHE COLLECTIVE CONCIENCEAustralian Aboriginal simple clan society
Totem is the clan’s emblem, that symbolises the clan’s origins and identity.
It serves to reinforce the group’s solidarity and social stability.
Argues that they are actually worshipping society as it represents the power of the group on which the individuals are totally dependant.
Regular social rituals reinforce the collective conscience and maintain social integration.
This brings people’s loyalty to each other and remind them of dependence of the powerful society.
Religion strengthens us and helps face life’s trials and motivates us to overcome obstacles that otherwise defeats us as it makes us feel that we are part of something greater than us.
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　- can not be applied to large scale society
- Even if totenism concept is correct this does not prove he has discovered essence of other Religions
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May explain social integration not conflict
Postmodernists argue that Durkheim’s ideas can not be applied to contemporary society- no longer a single shared value system for Religion to reinforce.

PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS

Bronislaw Malinowski (1954) agrees that Religion promotes solidarity.
Does so performing psychological functions for individuals.
1) Where the outcome is important but it uncontrollable and thus uncertainTrobirand Islands of the Western Pacific
- Lagoon fishing us safe and there is no ritual
- Ocean fishing is dangerous and is followed by a ritual to ensure a safe and successful expedition
This gives people a sense of control and confidence.
2) At times of life crisisEvents such as life, death, birth, puberty
Services provoke feelings of social solidarity, while the notion of immorality gives comfort, belief in life after death helps them cope.
Religion gives them security.
　

PARSON’S: VALUE AND MEANING

Talcott Parsons (1967) also sees essential functions that Religion performs in modern society.
1) Creates and legitamises society’s central valuesBy making the value’s sacred and promotes value consensus and thus social stability
2) Primary source of meaningAnswers ultimate questions about human conditions thus enables people to adjust yo adverse events or circumstances and help maintains stability.

CIVIL RELIGION

Robert Bellah (1970)
Americanism ‘American way of life’ and American society.
Civil religion is where a belief system that attaches sacred qualities are attached to society itself.
Civil Religion can claim loyalty of all Americans despite the individual religion of all .
This involves loyalty to the nation state and belief in God which are equated to being a true ‘American’
Binds people together from different ethnic and Religious backgrounds.
FUNCTIONAL ALTERNATIVESNon- Religious beliefs and practices that perform similar functions to that of an organised Religion.
Some other belief system Bellah argues that any other belief system could perform the same functions such as Nazi Germany to unite society

EVALUATION OF FUNCTIONALISM

　
Neglects negative aspects, such as Religion as a source of oppression of the poor and women
Ignores Religion as a source of division and conflict especially in societies which has more than one Religion
Can civil Religion be called a Religion when it has no belief in the supernatural or in a higher being
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　

MARXIST THEORY OF RELIGION

Marx predicted working class would realise their exploitation and unite to overthrow capitalism. Resulting in a classless system with no exploitation.
Marxism sees Religion as a feature only of class divided society.
Therefore as a result in a classless society Religion will disappear.
RELIGION AS AN IDELOLOGY Religion is a belief system that distorts people’s perception of reality in ways that serve the interest of the ruling class.
The class that controls the economic production also produces and distributes ideas in society through the Church, education system and media.
Ideological weapon- suffering of the poor is inevitable and God given and is to be rewarded immensely in the hereafter.
False consensus is created which is a distorted view of reality to make the poor not change their situation.
Lenin (1890-1924)- ‘spiritual gin’ manipulate masses and prevents them from overthrowing ruling class by creating a ‘mystical fog’.
Religion also makes higher class position appear divinely ordained
‘Divine right of Kings’.
RELIGION AND ALIENATION Alienation- losing control or being separated from something one has created or produced.
Under capitalism, workers are alienated as they do not own what they produce and have no control.
Religion performs some form of consolation ‘opium of the people’
Religion masks the pain and does not solve underlying problems.
Religion acts as an ideology that legitimises both the suffering of the poor and privileges of ruling class.
HINDU CASTE SYSEM Hindus are born into and marriage is forbidden between the castes.
Priest - warrior - merchant - slaves and labourers - untouchables.
Belief in reincarnation means that they are born into the caste depending on past life’s purity.
Higher class are pure whilst the untouchables are the lowest and need to perform cleaning ritual if they touch the lowest.
This controls society as it has been ordained on one’s own account.
　
　
EVALUATION
1- Neo- Marxist sees Religion as assisting not hindering the development of class consciousness
2- Althusser (1971) concept of alienation is unscientific as it is based on romantic idea the humans have a ‘true self’
3- Turner et al (1978) in Pre capitalist society Christianity had not much impact on peasants
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　
　

FEMINIST THEORY OF RELIGION

Religious beliefs function as a patriarchal ideology that legitamises female subordination.
EVIDENCE OF PATRIACHY Religious organisations:
Karen Armstrong (1993) see women’s exclusion from the priesthood of most Religions as an evidence of marginalisation
Places of worship

society
Sacred texts
Demise of mankind due to women.
Religious laws and customs

and reproductive role.
However, some believe that women have not always been subordinate to men within Religion.
Karen Armstrong (93)
Early Religions often placed women at the centre and female priesthood were found throughout Middle East about 6000 years ago.
From monotheistic Religions which formed 4000 years ago it gave way to patriarchy through belief in a one supreme Male God.
Nawal El Sadawi (1980)
Argues that Religion is not direct cause of subordination.
It is a result of patriarchal forms of society coming though few thousands of years ago.
Patriarchy thus began to influence and reshape Religion.
WOODHEAD: RELIGIOUS FEMINISMSome Muslim women choose to wear a hijab to escape confines of home and enter into education and employment.
Hijab is a symbol of liberation which enables them to enter public sphere without losing their culture and history,
Position of women are changing such as new form of Priesthood in Christianity.

　Women have fewer rights than men Decision making and dress codes. Some Religions legitimises women’s domestic Male God and Prophets.Jean Holm (94) describes this as devaluation of women in contemporary Segregated. Taboos that regard menstruation, pregnancy, childbirth as a pollution. CAPITALIST EXPLOIT WORKING CLASS COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS OF RELIGIONDurkheim sees Religion as the source of intellectual or cognitive capacities- our ability to reason and think conceptually.
Religion is the origin of the concepts and categories needed for reasoning, understanding the world and communicating.
Provides basic categories such as time, space and causation.
The division of tribes into clans giving humans their first notion of classification.
Durkheim- Religion is the origin of human thought, reason and science.
Warsley (1956) - Totenism- no sharp divison between the sacred and profane